The Sun Sets in the EastWhilst the war for the Axis powers in Europe and Africa progressed successfully, that in the Far East/Asia wasn’t going so well. Following its earlier successes, by mid-1942, the Japanese found themselves holding a vast area, though lacking the resources to properly defend it or even to adequately sustain their forces. Following the battles of the Coral Sea and Midway in Mid 1942, Japan was increasingly on the defensive.
Some of the RAAF’s new platforms
Unfortunately for Japan, their production capabilities were nowhere near that of their primary adversary, the USA. Whilst early successes were achieved, once the USA reached its full war production capability, the outcome of the war in the Pacific was largely a forgone conclusion. American aircraft and fighting ships were produced in greater numbers and far superior types than anyone could have predicted. With Japanese industry unable to match this capability and with resources especially limited (the Japanese war in the Pacific and China was as much a war for resources as conquest), the Japanese turned increasingly to desperate measures. Amongst these was the growing us of ‘Kamikaze’ style attacks.
Some assistance was forthcoming from their Axis partners, chiefly in the form of new designs for the revolutionary jet aircraft. To begin with Japan received small numbers of the Me-262 and Ar-234 aircraft (in return for their assistance in establishing Germany’s carrier capability). They also received plans to enable them to produce the aircraft under license – as the Nakajima Ki-201 and Kawanishi G9K respectively. The Japanese also produced a related development of the of the Me-262 called the Nakajima J9Y – this was somewhat simpler in construction and did not feature the swept back wings of the Me-262/Ki-201 and was designed as a fast attack bomber. Finally, the Yokosuka P1Y1 was modified into the Yokosuka Tenga through the replacement of the original piston engines with turbojets. However, with Japan lacking crucial resources (especially the all important metals) the full potential of the new jets was unable to be reached – without these metals and with limited production capability, Japanese versions of the jets were only able to achieve an average life of between 25 to 30 hours. Never-the-less the small numbers used did cause the Allies a degree of concern – especially when used to attack Allied shipping. Using either bombs or torpedoes, the Japanese jets were usually able to easily slip past Allied fighter screens, strike and then escape. However, the Allies soon learnt to counter this by the use of screens of escorting destroyers, high performance fighters (typically Grumman F-8F Bearcats and Ryan FR-3 Fireball combined Jet/piston fighters) operating in patrols with organic early warning provided by Grumman TBM-3W2 AEW aircraft.
The Nakajima J9Y
Kawanishi G9Ks
Nakajima Ki-201s
By early 1945, the Allies had reached the Japanese home islands. Hard-fought battles on Iwo Jima and Okinawa resulted in horrific casualties on both sides. Especially successful from the Japanese point of view was the impact achieved by the Kamikaze pilots often flying outdated piston engined aircraft. This tactic was now promoted as a way to not so much to win the war, but more so to at least cause the Allies unacceptably high casualties so that they may consider a negotiated peace.
The first application of this new strategy was not to be in the Pacific however. With the Carrier IJN Shinano in the Mediterranean to collect 120 Me-300 jet fighters, a new mission was planned. A special contingent of Japanese pilots was flown to Europe using Luftwaffe Ju-290 long range transports. These pilots were allocated 100 He-162 jets specially modified for a single one-way kamikaze mission. In June, their mission was carried out with great success (refer Operation Tsunami).
Having been wounded once again (especially given that it was the homeland), the United States now abandoned their ‘Europe first’ commitment (this was largely irrelevant anyway, given the setbacks in Europe). All effort was now focussed upon removing Japan from the war once and for all – it was hoped that once this was done, full force could be focussed against the European Axis partners. In the highest levels of the Pentagon, two options were now discussed – either invade the Japanese homeland or use the new Atomic weapons being developed. However, this discussion was soon overtaken by events in Europe.
With the need to achieve a victory in Europe, the first use of the new Atomic weapons was set for use against Germany. Unfortunately, this did not turn out as expected with the B-29 carrying the weapon being shot down over France on the night of the 6th August. Moreover, the resulting devastation of the French city of Reims and the subsequent restrictions placed upon their use by President Trumann decided the issue – an invasion (under the guise of Operation Downfall) of Japan would now take place.
Operation Downfall consisted of two parts — Operation Olympic and Operation Coronet. Beginning in November 1945, the intention of Operation Olympic was to capture the southern third of the southernmost main Japanese island of Kyūshū, with the recently captured island of Okinawa to be used as a staging area. Later, in the spring of 1946, Operation Coronet would involve the invasion of the Kantō plain near Tokyo on the Japanese island of Honshū.
Unfortunately for the Allies, Japan's geography made this invasion plan obvious to the Japanese as well, who were able to accurately deduce the Allied invasion plans and adjust their defence plans accordingly. The Japanese planned an all-out defence of Kyūshū, with little left in reserve for any subsequent defence operations – it was hoped that any invasion would be defeated before it was able to gain a foothold. A significant element of this defence involved the heavy use of kamikaze attacks from aircraft (the IJA and IJN had more than 10,000 (many obsolete) aircraft ready for use) – including rocket and turbojet powered versions of the Yokosuka MXY-7 Ohka and Pulsejet powered Kawanishi Baika (this being a piloted version of the German Fi-103) launched from concealed ramps. In addition, hundreds of small Shin'yō suicide boats (an estimated 800 were ready for use) would also be used to attack any Allied ships that came near the shores of Kyūshū. The IJN also had about 100 Kōryū-class midget submarines, 250 smaller Kairyū-class midget submarines, and 1,000 Kaiten manned torpedoes ready to conduct operations against any invasion fleet.
On the morning of November 1, 1945 ("X-Day") Operation Olympic was launched. The combined Allied naval armada was the largest ever assembled, including 32 aircraft carriers (many being smaller escort types), 20 battleships, and 400 destroyers and escorts and transports. Against this, the Japanese retaliated with massed suicide attacks. Included amongst the aircraft making kamikaze attacks were many of Japan’s last jet aircraft. By the end of the first day, over 100 Allied ships had been either sunk or severely damaged. For a while it appeared as though the Japanese strategy may work. However, following the strikes against their homeland, the Americans were just as determined that the invasion would succeed. Waves of Allied fighters were ready to meet the threat including small numbers of P-80A, de Havilland Vampire Mk Is and McDonnell FH-1s rushed to the theatre to specifically combat the Japanese jets. By the end of the day, despite desperate Japanese attempts to stop them, the Americans had achieved a beachhead at two of the three invasion points (the third at Kushikino was finally achieved on the second day). Over the next 6 weeks, approximately 450,000 Allied casualties were incurred. On the Japanese side it was estimated that almost 1.6 Million were killed. Finally by the end of December, the overall goals of Operation Olympic had been achieved with the southernmost third of Kyūshū under Allied control. This territory would now be used as a staging ground for Operation Coronet.
Scenes from Operation Olympic
Operation Coronet, the invasion of Honshū at the Tokyo Plain south of the capital, began on "Y-Day", the 1st March, 1946. Surpassing even Operation Olympic, Coronet was the largest amphibious operation of all time, with 25 divisions (including the floating reserve) earmarked for the initial operations. The US First Army landed at Kujukuri Beach, on the Boso Peninsula, whilst the U.S. Eighth Army landed at Hiratsuka, on Sagami Bay. Both armies then drove north and inland, meeting 3 weeks later outside of Tokyo on the 21st March. The invasion was able to proceed more quickly than predicted as the Japanese had largely exhausted themselves in the earlier
Battle for Kyūshū. Never-the-less, American casualties still reached approximately 100,000 as not only Japanese servicemen but also civilians threw themselves into the battle (estimated casualties on the Japanese side reached approximately 2 million). Finally on the afternoon of 22nd March (this day became known in the English-speaking countries as "V-J Day"), the Japanese Emperor made a speech on radio declaring Japan’s unconditional surrender (for most Japanese, this was the first time that they had heard their emperor speak). Over the next 3 weeks, the Allies would move to occupy the remainder of the Japanese homeland. The war in the Pacific was over.
USN Bearcat
Before moving on though it is perhaps worth mentioning a number of final applications of Axis technology by the Japanese. The first of these was focussed on the defence of Japanese cities against high flying B-29 and B-32 bombers. Whereas, the other Axis partners had found the use of jet fighters to be effective, the Japanese with their more limited jet fighters (as well as their focus on the use of such fighters in the kamikaze role) were forced to consider other means of defence. Amongst these was a proposal that had been rejected in Germany – the Bachem Ba 349 rocket propelled, point defence interceptor. Able to be rapidly produced in large numbers using readily available materials (each Ba-349 or Rikugun Ki-203 as it was known in Japanese service, typically only needed to fly a single mission) and able to be flown by inexperienced pilots with only the most basic training, the Ba-349/ Ki-203 quickly found favour with the IJA. After vertical take-off which eliminated the need for airfields, the majority of the flight to the bombers was radio controlled from the ground. The primary mission of the pilot was to aim the aircraft at its target bomber and fire its armament of rockets. Originally it was planned that once the salvo of rockets were fired, the plane would fly up and over the bombers. After running out of fuel the plane would then be used to ram the tail of a bomber, with the pilot ejecting just before impact to parachute to the ground. In practice though, it became more common for the pilot to not eject but rather to conduct a kamikaze style mission against the bombers. First introduced into operational service during April 1945, by mid May American B-29 and B-32 crews were reporting regular encounters with the rocket interceptors over Japan and many bombers started to fall to their operations. It is estimated that by V-J Day an estimated 200 - 300 B-29/B-32 bombers had been downed by such attacks.
B-29s bombing Japan
Rare photos of Rikugun Ki-203launches
The final known application of Axis technology by the Japanese was one that fortunately never developed beyond the planning stage. At the end of 1945 with the Allies already having invaded the Japanese home Islands, a final desperate proposal was put forward. This called for the modification of 3 massive Sen Toku I-400 class submarines to each carry a single Von Braun style A-4 rocket. Whilst dangerous enough, each of these rockets would be even more deadly having been planned to be fitted with a biological warfare payload. However, before the mission could be initiated, V-J Day was declared – modification work to allow the I-400s to carry the rocket had been begun though and shocked the Allies when they were discovered.
I-400 class submarines
One other development arose following the Japanese surrender. In the Mediterranean, the giant carrier IJN Shinano now found itself technically out of the war. Following its success during Operation Tsunami, the carrier had remained in Europe with the hope of possibly repeating its earlier mission (it was also feared that any attempt to return to Japan may be in vain without adequate escort). Immediately following the Japanese surrender, the Shinano was taken under the charge of the Regia Marina. However it was only kept under their control for 3 weeks before being passed over to the Spanish Armada Española (with the need to maintain a strong naval presence to help protect the newly captured Azores and to strike satisfactory in the Atlantic, Franco had insisted that it be handed over). For the short term Spain now found itself in possession of the most powerful aircraft carrier in the world. After going a refit in Italy (which also allowed both the Italians and the Germans to study the now renamed the Dédalo extensively), the ship was soon in Spanish service with a compliment of 80 Me-300 fighters, 12 Do-335Cs, 4 Ar-234E-2s as well as 6 FA-223s. Amongst the crew were 850 Japanese crew members who now transferred their allegiance to their PER allies.
